Jesus and Women

"After this he journeyed through towns
and villages preaching and proclaiming
the good news of the kingdom of God. The Twelve
accompanied him, and also some women...Mary
called the Magdalene,...Joanna, the wife Herod's
steward Chuza, Susanna, and many others who
were assisting them out of their means."

Luke 8:1-5

Background
The discovery of the Nag Hammadi manuscripts and the Dead Sea Scrolls permits a much enlarged understanding both of early Christianity and the Judaism of Jesus' day. Likewise, feminist exegesis opens a new window on the world of women both in first century Palestine, and in the Hellenist world that ultimately embraced Christianity. Within the Palestinian context, the practice of Jesus toward women is seen to be radically inclusive. This experience of equality led the early female disciples of Jesus to take for granted their leadership roles in the earliest Christian Churches. This is reflected in Paul's letters, the Acts of the Apostles, and other early Christian writings.

As Christianity gradually became more mainstream, the leadership of women in the Christian Churches became less and less acceptable in the patriarchal Greco-Roman world. Jesus' original inclusive vision, rejecting both violence and the subordination of one person by another, was seemingly lost, (with a few exceptions), for the next 2000 years. Societies weren't ready to embrace the loving justice of God then, anymore than they are now. The inclusive Jesus-vision is now reemerging, with perhaps greater urgency, in a world stumbling toward an understanding that it must somehow embrace this nonviolent mutuality or perish.

The inclusive time of Jesus is upon us. If this nonviolent world of mutuality and partnership is to emerge, it will need the energies of both men and women. Sexism and the domination of others are diseases that make all of us sick, and both women and men are afflicted. They can be healed today, as 2000 years ago, by embracing the saving Jesus-mystery one day at a time.

This brochure seeks to make available in an "at-a-glance" format materials that fill many books written by renowned scholars. The reader is encouraged to peruse these for more information.

Women in the Gentile World
In Jesus' time as in ours, all cultures were patriarchal. Women were subordinated first to their fathers, then to their husbands. However, their socioeconomic status varied markedly according to the degree of civil and inheritance rights each of their Mediterranean cultures permitted them.

Greece and Macedonia
In 340 BCE, Demothesenes wrote:"Keep mistresses for the sake of pleasure, concubines for daily care of our person, wives to bear legitimate children and be faithful guardians of households." Only Greek wives were citizens with the right to vote. They had a limited right to own property apart from their dowry. Concubines and mistresses had no civil rights, though mistresses were educated to be the pleasurable soul-companions of their lovers. As in Rome, unwanted daughters could be left on the hillside to die.

Macedonian women faired better. They built temples, founded cities, engaged armies, and held fortresses. They served as regents and corulers. Men admired their wives and even named cities after them. Thessalonica was such a city, and here women were given inheritable civic rights. A Macedonian businesswoman, Lydia, founded the church at Phillipi after her conversion by Paul.

Egypt and Rome
Egyptian women were equal to men juridically. They were buyers sellers, borrowers, and lenders. They could petition the government for support or help, initiate a divorce, and pay taxes. The eldest daughter was permitted to be a legitimate heir.

In Rome, the authority of the father was paramount. A Roman girl was "sold" in name into the hands of her future husband. Both daughters and sons were educated, boys until the age of seventeen, girls until thirteen when they were expected to marry. A Roman woman couldn't conduct business in her own name, but could enlist the help of a male relative or friend who served as her agent. Women did have inheritance rights and the right to divorce. Roman women were not permitted to vote or hold public office. Nevertheless, Roman matrons had power and influence because they were the defacto heads of households and business managers while their spouses were off fighting in Caesar's legions.

Early Christianity spread rapidly in the Roman world due in no small part to the influence of wealthy Roman matrons.

As a rule, in Gentile cultures with strong female deities (Aphrodite in Corinth, and Isis in Egypt), women had greater socioeconomic status. In virtually all Gentile cultures both women and men exercised leadership in religious worship.

Women in Palestinian Judaism
Palestinian Hebrew women were among the poorest in the world in Jesus' day. This was probably because they had no inheritance rights and could be divorced for the flimsiest of reasons. Hebrew men could divorce their wives for anything from burning the dinner (Hillel) to adultery (Shammai). Yet Hebrew women were not allowed to divorce their husbands. In a culture in which women did not survive unless they were linked to the patriarchal household, it was disastrous to be divorced. Seen in this light, Jesus' proscription of divorce is markedly protective of women. The raising of the son of the widow of Nain is another example of Jesus' compassion for the poverty of women entrapped by patriarchy.

A Hebrew woman had minimal to no property rights. Theoretically she could inherit land, but in practice male heirs had precedence. Even if she did inherit property, her husband had the right to its use and its fruits. A woman's primary sphere was in the home, where hospitality was her special care. Women did lead table prayers and festival candle lighting ceremonies.

A child was held to be Jewish, only if the mother was Jewish. Most Jewish girls were betrothed by their fathers at a young age. Jewish women were held to be unclean while menstruating. If she inadvertently touched a man while having her menses, he was obliged to undergo a weeklong purification ritual before worshipping at the Temple. In Mark's gospel, the woman afflicted with a twelve year hemorrhage would have been a complete social outcast. We see Jesus' lack of concern about ritual impurity in his healing of her after she courageously touched him despite the taboo. (Mk:25)

In early Judaism women did proclaim and prophesy but in Jesus' day, they weren't permitted to proclaim Torah at synagogue because of their periodic "uncleaness." Whether a woman should be educated in the Torah was hotly debated. As a rule, only the Rabbis'wives were so educated. Women were not accepted as witnesses in Jewish law, nor could they teach the law. Women had no official religious or leadership roles in first century Judaism. In a country ruled by the religious elite, this rendered them invisible and powerless.

Women in the Gospels

Invisible and powerless that is, to nearly everyone but Jesus who, as the Gospels show, had a special love for those discounted by others. His behavior toward women, even viewed through the androcentric lens of the Gospel texts, is remarkable. Jesus welcomed women into his closest discipleship: "After this he journeyed through towns and villages preaching and proclaiming the good news of the kingdom of God. The Twelve accompanied him, and also some women.... Mary called the Magdalene, ...Joanna, the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, Susanna, and many others who were assisting them out of their means." (Lk 8:1-5).

Women were not named in ancient texts unless they had social prominence. The clear implication in this text is that wealthy women underwrote the Galilean mission.

Jesus welcomed female disciples into his entourage to learn the ways of God, along with the male disciples. This was highly unusual since women normally didn't speak to men in public, much less travel around the countryside with them. Jesus' radical inclusion of women is also illustrated by the story of Martha and Mary. Mary assumes her place at Jesus' feet, the place traditionally taken by male rabbinical students. Martha, (as often happens even today among women when the rules of patriarchy are challenged), protests. But Jesus praises Mary's thirst to learn more about God: "It is Mary who has chosen the better part; it is not to be taken from her."(Luke 10:38-42)

. Throughout the Gospels, we see Jesus challenge deep seated patriarchal assumptions: that only women bear the burden of sexual sin; that Samaritan and Canaanite women are to be shunned and discounted; and that prodigal sons are to be disowned. Instead, men are challenged to own their complicity in adultery; the Samaritan woman becomes a missionary bringing her whole town to belief in Jesus; the Canaanite woman's fierce love for her daughter succeeds in broadening Jesus'own horizons as to whom the Good News is sent; and the wayward son is welcomed home with a huge party thrown by a prodigal father.

Women's equal call to discipleship with their brothers is most evident in the Resurrection accounts, for it is upon the testimony of women that the proclamation of the Resurrection depends. All four Gospels show Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the Mother of James and Joses, Salome and the other women disciples accompanying Jesus to his death; anointing and burying his body; viewing the empty tomb; and finally experiencing his risen presence. That the message of the resurrection was first given to women is regarded by biblical scholars as the strongest proof for the historicity of the resurrection accounts. Had these texts been fabricated by overzealous male disciples, they would never have included the witness of women in a society which rejected them as legal witnesses. At first, the apostles did not believe their message. And still today, some male disciples refuse to hear the good news if it is proclaimed by women.

Women in the Earliest Churches

In the last chapter of Paul's letter to the Romans, ten of the 29 church leaders whose favor he seeks, are women. Phoebe, Paul's patroness at Cenchreae, and Prisca, (who, with her husband Aquila, was a prominent missionary) head the list. Paul's letters, (excepting Timothy and Titus which were not written by him), are the earliest Christian manuscripts we have, and constitute strong historical evidence for the coequal leadership roles of women and men in the infant church. This equality is reflected in the Galatian baptismal formula: "There does not exist among you Jew or Greek, slave or free, male or female. All are one in Christ Jesus."(Gal. 3:28). This text was most probably an early hymn or prayer that every newly baptized Christian sang or prayed with great rejoicing.

The Book of Acts refers to "Phillip's prophetic daughters" (Acts 6:1-7). The early church historian Eusebius, attributes the apostolic origins of the provincial Asian churches to their ministry, thereby acknowledging that at least some women were transmitters of apostolic tradition. What a pity that their names are lost to us! The Didache, an early worship manual, names prophets as the normal leaders of Eucharistic celebrations, which were often held in the homes of prominent women.

By the end of the first century the leadership of women was already meeting resistance: "A woman must learn in silence and be completely submissive. I do not permit a woman to act as teacher, or in any way to have authority over a man; she must be quiet.."(1:Tim). Nevertheless, female leaders fluorished alongside male leaders in the egalitarian and orthodox Valentinian and Montanist churches of Asia Minor until the fourth century when they were suppressed. By this time, Constantine had succeeded in using Christianity to unify the crumbling Roman empire. The inclusive, charismatic discipleship of equals which enhanced Christianity's rapid early growth, had been domesticated, only to re-emerge in the rise of religious communities which have continued the prophetic tradition in Catholicism for 2000 years. It is in this tradition that church reform organizations walk today.



References

Fiorenza, Elizabeth S. In Memory of Her. New York: Crossroad. l983.
      . "The Twelve" in Women Priests. New York: Paulist Press, l971.
Johnson, Elizabeth A. Consider Jesus Crossroad, New York. l990.
O'Collins,G. and Kendall, D. "Mary Magdalen as Major Witness to Jesus' Resurrection." Theological Studies. 48: l987.
Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. New York: Random House, l979. Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism
Viladesau, Richard. "Could Jesus Have Ordained Women? Reflections on Mulieris Dignitatem." Thought, Vol.67, No.264 ,March l992.
Witherington, Ben. Women in the Ministry of Jesus. Cambridge 1984
      . Women in the Earliest Churches. London: Cambridge l988.

This brochure was written by Christine Schenk who is project coordinator of the Women in Church Leadership project. Schenk has master's degrees in midwifery and theology. She also serves her Cleveland Sisters of St. Joseph as vocation minister.